AVR microcontrollers from ATMEL are very good choice for designing mid-range embedded systems.They are 8Bit RISC controllers. They come in many verities and most of them gives 16MIPS (Mega Instructions Per Seconds) throughput at 16MHz .
Unlike most of the popular PIC microcontrollers, AVRs have powerful instruction set, most executing in 1 cycle. Recently ATMEL has introduces some new controllers with speed upto 20MHz and USB support.
(actually we can overclock AVR, which is characterised to run at 16MHz, upto 24MHz !! I will tell you how to do it sometimes later).
Which AVR ?
Most common AVRs are ATmega8 and ATmega16. They are available at Lamington road for Rs60 and Rs100 respectively.We will use ATmega16 AVR throughout these tutorials.
Which compiler ?
AVRs can be programmed directly in assembly. We have to use standard assembler provided by ATMEL. However, if you choose writing programs into assembly, you won’t be able to write complex programs, it will drive you nuts and half of your development time will be wasted in recollecting what you have done last time, why this line I have written, which register I am using for this variable, Oh my god now how can I do 32bit integer multiplication/divisions, etc. problems. The solution is simple…use C cross-compilers !
C cross-compilers(or to be simple call it as compilers) provide you facility to write programs in C and then they convert it to equivalent assembly code, which is then assembled by standard assembler provided by ATMEL. All happens at the background and you get HEX file at the output. Hex file actually contains machine code, which uC (i.e. microcontroller) will execute.
We will be using CodeVisionAVR C compiler.This is extremely user friendly and the best C compiler available for AVRs. Though it is commercial, its evaluation version can compile C code which should not result into HEX file having size more than 2KB. Later on once you are well versed with cvavr (i.e. CodeVisionAVR) and overall C programming methodology for uCs, you can switch to free GCC compiler for AVR.
To program(or burn !) our code into uC. We need to use programmer hardware and programmer software. We will use simple parallel port programmer hardware and PONYPROG200 programmer software. To know how to build simple AVR programmer hardware and how to use PONYPROG2000 see
AVR Programmer Simple and Easy.....
Overview
You cannot imagine to use microcontroller without using any of its i/o pins. Finally its all about : taking input , processing it and generating output ! Thus i/o registers and their correct settings is indispensable part while learning to program any uC.
We will learn how to use AVR ports and actually ‘code’ for writing/reading data to/from port pins. It is slightly confusing for beginners, however once you understand it, you will certainly appreciate the way it is designed.
NOTE : I will frequently refer to ‘configuring pin’ or simply ‘pin’. Remember, a port has multiple pins. Thus in order to change setting for one port, you have to change setting for all port pins of that port. To change setting for one single pin of the port, you have to change a particular bit in associated register. Got that ? If not read this para again.
Registers
AVR is 8 bit microcontroller. All its ports are 8 bit wide. Every port has 3 registers associated with it each one with 8 bits. Every bit in those registers configure pins of particular port. Bit0 of these registers is associated with Pin0 of the port, Bit1 of these registers is associated with Pin1 of the port, …. and like wise for other bits.
These three registers are as follows : (x can be replaced by A,B,C,D as per the AVR you are using)
- DDRx register
- PORTx register
- PINx register
DDRx register
DDRx (Data Direction Register) configures data direction of port pins. Means its setting determines whether port pins will be used for input or output. Writing 0 to a bit in DDRx makes corresponding port pin as input, while writing 1 to a bit in DDRx makes corresponding port pin as output.
example:- to make all pins of port A as input pins :
DDRA = 0b00000000; - to make all pins of port A as output pins :
DDRA = 0b11111111; - to make lower nibble of port B as output and higher nibble as input :
DDRB = 0b00001111;
PINx (Port IN) used to read data from port pins. In order to read the data from port pin, first you have to change port’s data direction to input. This is done by setting bits in DDRx to zero. If port is made output, then reading PINx register will give you data that has been output on port pins.
Now there are two input modes. Either you can use port pins as tri stated inputs or you can activate internal pull up. It will be explained shortly.
example :- to read data from port A.
DDRA = 0x00; //Set port a as input x = PINA; //Read contents of port a
PORTx is used for two purposes.
1) To output data : when port is configured as output
When you set bits in DDRx to 1, corresponding pins becomes output pins. Now you can write data into respective bits in PORTx register. This will immediately change state of output pins according to data you have written.
In other words to output data on to port pins, you have to write it into PORTx register. However do not forget to set data direction as output.
example :- to output 0xFF data on port b
DDRB = 0b11111111; //set all pins of port b as outputs PORTB = 0xFF; //write data on port
- to output data in variable x on port a
DDRA = 0xFF; //make port a as output PORTA = x; //output variable on port
- to output data on only 0th bit of port c
DDRC.0 = 1; //set only 0th pin of port c as output PORTC.0 = 1; //make it high.
2) To activate/deactivate pull up resistors – when port is configures as input
When you set bits in DDRx to 0, i.e. make port pins as inputs, then corresponding bits in PORTx register are used to activate/deactivate pull-up registers associated with that pin. In order to activate pull-up resister, set bit in PORTx to 1, and to deactivate (i.e to make port pin tri stated) set it to 0.
In input mode, when pull-up is enabled, default state of pin becomes ’1′. So even if you don’t connect anything to pin and if you try to read it, it will read as 1. Now, when you externally drive that pin to zero(i.e. connect to ground / or pull-down), only then it will be read as 0.
However, if you configure pin as tri state. Then pin goes into state of high impedance. We can say, it is now simply connected to input of some OpAmp inside the uC and no other circuit is driving it from uC. Thus pin has very high impedance. In this case, if pin is left floating (i.e. kept unconnected) then even small static charge present on surrounding objects can change logic state of pin. If you try to read corresponding bit in pin register, its state cannot be predicted. This may cause your program to go haywire, if it depends on input from that particular pin.
Thus while, taking inputs from pins / using micro-switches to take input, always enable pull-up resistors on input pins.NOTE : while using on chip ADC, ADC port pins must be configured as tri stated input.
example :
- to make port a as input with pull-ups enabled and read data from port a
DDRA = 0x00; //make port a as input PORTA = 0xFF; //enable all pull-ups y = PINA; //read data from port a pins
- to make port b as tri stated input
DDRB = 0x00; //make port b as input PORTB = 0x00; //disable pull-ups and make it tri state
- to make lower nibble of port a as output, higher nibble as input with pull-ups enabled
DDRA = 0x0F; //lower nib> output, higher nib> input PORTA = 0xF0; //lower nib> set output pins to 0, //higher nib> enable pull-ups
Following table lists register bit settings and resulting function of port pins
| register bits → pin function↓ | DDRx.n | PORTx.n | PINx.n |
| tri stated input | 0 | 0 | read data bit x = PINx.n; |
| pull-up input | 0 | 1 | read data bit x = PINx.n; |
| output | 1 | write data bit PORTx.n = x; | n/a |
Hands on …
-You can type following programs in CodeVisionAVR and test them on your development kit .- To know, how to burn code into uC using PonyProg2000, click here.
- If you don’t have development kit, simply connect 8 LEDs to PB (i.e port b).
- In Project>Configure>C compiler do not forget to set following options :
Chip : ATmega16 (or whatever you are using)
Clock : 16MHz (or whatever you are using)
- Experiment with these programs and try to learn more from it.
1) Blink LED on PB0 at a rate of 1Hz.
#include <mega16.h> #include <delay.h> void main() { DDRB = 0xFF; //PB as output PORTB= 0x00; //keep all LEDs off while(1) { PORTB.0=0; //turn LED off delay_ms(500); //wait for half second PORTB.0=1; //turn LED on delay_ms(500); //wait for half second }; }
To see how to create blank project, write above code in CodeVisionAVR and then how to MAKE it . Click on following image :
.
Download Link for illustration.
2) Blink LEDs on PB with different patterns according to given input.
- Kit : use SW0, SW1
- No Kit : Connect a 2 micro-switches between pin PC0,PC2 and ground. So that when you press the switch pin is pulled low.
- Kit : use SW0, SW1
- No Kit : Connect a 2 micro-switches between pin PC0,PC2 and ground. So that when you press the switch pin is pulled low.
#include <mega16.h> #include <delay.h> //declare global arrays for two patterns unsigned char p1[4] = { 0b10000001, 0b01000010, 0b00100100, 0b00011000 }; unsigned char p2[4] = { 0b11111111, 0b01111110, 0b00111100, 0b00011000 }; void main() { unsigned char i; //loop counter DDRB = 0xFF; //PB as output PORTB= 0x00; //keep all LEDs off DDRC = 0x00; //PC as input PORTC.0 = 1; //enable pull ups for PORTC.1 = 1; //only first two pins while(1) { //# if SW0 is pressed show pattern 1 if(PINC.0==0) { for(i=0;i<3;i++) { PORTB=p1[i]; //output data delay_ms(300); //wait for some time } PORTB=0; //turn off all LEDs } //# if SW1 is pressed show pattern 2 if(PINC.1==0) { for(i=0;i<3;i++) { PORTB=p2[i]; //output data delay_ms(300); //wait for some time } PORTB=0; //turn off all LEDs } }; }
Ultra simple AVR programmer.
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